Health Of Health Information Technology - 994 Words

Health Informatics, or otherwise known as Health Information Technology, is the processing of information that involves both computer hardware and software that can store, retrieve and share healthcare information. Health Informatics uses methods of understanding and analyzing patient data to improve knowledge of healthcare decisions, problem-solving and patient care plans. Health Informatics is a fairly new technology but is continuously developing at a rapid pace globally. The goals of Health Informatics is to improve patient care, protect privacy, provide security, reduce medical errors, organize information, improve data exchange and provide standard data between healthcare facilities and workers. The history of Health Informatics is not very extensive considering in only began in the 1960’s but interest in the field increased dramatically in the 1980’s and continues to rapidly grow and develop in our modern times. In the 1950’s computers were being developed and brought to public attention but people were not thrilled about the idea of a machine that could potentially take their place of work by completing their jobs for them. By the 1960’s a variety of second generation computers were available to businesses, universities and the government. At this point in the early 1960’s patient care applications began to be included in select health care institutes computer systems. By the mid 1960’s computers were gaining more recognition and in 1965 Congress amended the SocialShow MoreRelatedHealth Information Technology1521 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction: Office of National coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC) has funded this program to find breakthrough innovations in the field of Health Information Technology (IT). This research program was awarded $60 million and this program is divided into four focus areas. This program brings together researchers, healthcare providers, and other health IT sector stakeholders in order to transform the research products into practice. This program is designed to improve qualityRead MoreHealth Information Technology1586 Words   |  6 Pages The health industry has existed for a very long time ever since doctors bartered for chickens to pay for their services. Computers on the other hand in their modern form have only existed since the 1940s. So when did technology become a part of healthcare? The first electronic health record programs were created in the 1960s around the same time the Kennedy administration started exploring the validity of such products. Between the 1960s and c urrent administration there were little to no advancementsRead MoreThe Health Information Technology992 Words   |  4 Pagesthe finest for an inexpensive cost. Envisioning what would happen in health information technology in five years is stress-free, hence we live in a real world and achieving the finest and inexpensive cost are a complex plan. It would take meticulous planning, knowledge and skills to accomplish this progression and cost would be a factor, too. My chief focus is the administrative portion of the health information technology and the role that I would play in the implementation of this system. IRead MoreHealth Information Technology3876 Words   |  16 PagesHealth Information Technology : Quality Issues Author : Neha Salian Co-author : Malvika Hake Abstract Health IT is the technology that enables patients and providers to support better health and health care by providing targeted information meant to inform, educate or generally allow for improved decision making. With health care costs and quality assurance taking central roles in the health care arena, increasing attention is being directed towards the potential of health informationRead MoreHealth Communication And Health Information Technology3350 Words   |  14 Pages Health communication and health information technology are essential features in today’s advance healthcare systems. It has become an important portion to healthcare delivery, public health, and the way individuals access and utilize the healthcare systems in modern societies. Health communication and technology are influencing the way in which health professionals and the public interprets health information and makes meaningful decisions about health. There is no doubt that effective use of communicationRead MoreHealth Information Technology Impact Health Care1418 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout my interviewing process all aspects of health Information technology were discussed, and to my expectations the answers I received were somewhat expected. I interviewed a Registered Nurse who is currently employed by Covenant Healthcare with 20 years of experience, the mother of an infant who is very concerned about her kid’s health and believes it is a top priority, and a se nior citizen who recently lost his due to complications associated with his diabetes. For the first question, theRead MoreHealth Information Technology For Economic And Clinical Health1383 Words   |  6 Pageserrors, or accommodations that might not ameliorate their health – and may cost them more in copayments or coinsurance. As required by the Affordable Care Act, Health and Human Services (HHS) launched several initiatives to link payments more proximately with quality outcomes and promote value-predicated care. These reforms promote value over volume and ascertain that care is better coordinated across the healthcare distribution system (Health IT, 2013). As a result the government is looking to influenceRead MoreHealth Information Technology For Economic And Clinical Health1283 Words   |  6 Pagesthe U.S. Government passed The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, t o promote the adoption and meaningful use of health information technology (Mangalmurti, Murtagh and Mello 2060). The HITECH Act authorizes grants and incentives to promote the â€Å"meaningful use† of electronic health records (EHR) by providers (2060). The effect is a high commitment to a technology-led system reform, urging a renewedRead MoreHealth Information Technology For Economic And Clinical Health1484 Words   |  6 Pagescase presents a prime example of privacy violation. The Federal privacy rule 42 CFR, part 2 mandated addition privacy protection for any health record that is generated in the treatment of patients in the federal alcohol and drug program (Hughes, 2002). The HIPAA privacy rule dictates that healthcare organizations must not disclose any identifying patient information, or alert any entity that a particular patient is participating in alcohol/drug treatment program. This type of privacy breach must beRead MoreInformation Technology And The Health S ystems1301 Words   |  6 PagesInformation Technology (IT) Initiative Proposal As the business analyst for the Health Systems, Inc., I had was afforded the opportunity to conduct an analysis on the current information technology systems. Upon recognizing and discovering several issues within the Health Systems, Inc. existing information technology systems, my team and I are preparing resolutions for each and every one of them. In addition to these resolutions, we will incorporate an Information Security and Assurance platform

You Are Going For Prison By Jim Hogshire Essay - 919 Words

You Are Going To Prison Book Review The United States has the largest population of prisoners of any nation in the world. As of 2013 there were more than 1.57 million inmates in jails and prisons throughout the U.S.(The United States) In the book You Are Going To Prison, by Jim Hogshire, a verbal picture is painted of the life of a prisoner. Published in 1994 by the publishing company Loompanics Unlimited, this book talks about the experience of being incarcerated from the time you are stopped by police and arrested to potentially facing the death penalty. In the first chapter, the author discusses the process of being arrested. He describes how to interact with the police, how to deal with evidence that could incriminate you, and how to exercise your rights such as your right to decline searches, to request a lawyer, and your right to remain silent. Once you are arrested, he discusses the importance of looking clean and likable in your mugshot in the section titled â€Å"The Pee Wee Problem.† In thi s section he says: â€Å"Consider the case of Pee Wee Herman who got caught beating off in public. It wasn’t the â€Å"crime† that ruined him at all. It was the picture. The Pee Wee Herman we knew was almost sexless and benign. More than anything else the public was shocked by that mugshot. Instead of the harmless man-child, we saw a goateed dog-rapist. There was no doubt, once that mug shot was published, that Pee Wee was beating off in the movie theater and even people inclined to give

Effects of E-Adrenoceptor Antagonists on Exercise-Free-Samples

Question: Discuss about the Effects of E-Adrenoceptor Antagonists on Exercise Induced Cardiovascular Changes. Answer: Introduction Beta adrenoceptors are binded by beta blockers drugs which block the binding of norepinephrine and epinephrine receptors. These cause inhibition of the effects which act on the receptors. Beta blockers act as drugs which are sympatholytic. Often beta blockers bind to beta-adrenoceptors which partially activates the receptors which activates them while offering prevention of norepinephrine from binding the receptor. The partial agonists thus provide backgrounds for sympathetic activity while offering prevention of normal and enhanced sympathetic activity. The beta blockers possess aspect of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity while others produce stabilizing activity, thus producing similar activites as observed on membrane stabilization activity by sodium channels blockers.[i] Beta blockers bind themselves to beta adrenoceptors which are located in cardiac area surrounding the nodal tissue, which conduct the system and offers contraction of myocytes. The beat has been shown to have both 1 and 2 adrenoceptors, which the common is 1 adrenoceptors. It offers binding effect on the norepinephrine which releases itself to sympathetic nerves located in adrenergic area. Beta blockers in this case offer binding protection to normal ligand -adrenoceptors through competing itself on the binding sites.[ii] Beta adrenoceptors are coupled by the Gs protein which offers activation of adenyl cyclase forming Camp located in the ATP which increases the Camp and thus activated the dependent protein kinase. With the general level of sympathetic tone in the heart, these beta blockers are able to lower down the sympathetic influence which offers stimulation of the heart rate, contractility, electrical conduction and relaxation. This leads to reduction in heart rate, contractility, velocity conduction and relaxation. These kinds of drugs have been shown to have an effect on the elevated levels of sympathetic activity.[iii] With concern of cardiovascular health, beta blockers often offer little vascular effect due to the 2 adrenoceptors having small function of the modulator in the basal vascular tone. Blockage of 2 adrenoceptors is linked to smaller degree of vasoconstriction in the vascular beds.[iv] Studies have shown that 1 and 2 adrenoceptor receptors are associated increased intensity of vascular activity, it stimulates in response to the constriction and relaxation of the arteries and veins.[v] Endothelial cells are not produced through mediation of 1 and 2 adrenoceptors, rather they play a key role in influcneing blood vessel activity, further the role played the vascular activity is key in prevention and treatment of vascular disease, thus assessing the different morphology of cardiac function is relevant in establishing effects of 1 and 2 adrenoceptors. [vi] Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists function in cardiovascular management by lowering elevated blood pressure. Compounds such as Atenol selectively apply to Beta 1-adrenoceptor which possess intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. [vii] Pindol on the other hand has non selective ability of beta-adrenoceptor which possesses sympathomimetic activity. These study evaluates its application when used in two body states that is during rest and exercise activities, medical and therapeutic effects of both drugs is being tested. The study is a double blind using vitamin B6 as a placebo control. This study thus seeks to examine the effects of orally administered adrenoceptors antagonists, Atenolol and Pendolol on the blood pressure effects, heart rate and lung function during two critical phases of rest and after exercise activity. Methods and materials The study experiment was submitted to the University of New South Wales, health science department for ethical approval. This experimental study employed double blind design , where subjects were blinded and utilized placebo and control usage. The subject participants involved students aged between 18-65 years of the University of New South Wales. The materials need for this study included Perceived Exertion Scale, heart rate monitor having watch, strap and polar, blood pressure monitor, peak flow meter and a timer. The experimental phase involved two stages; pre drug and post drug . at the pre drug phase, the start the timer at 0 minutes and time adjusted to resistance level to obtain the KP level, then hold KP level at 50rpm for 2 minutes. During the last 10 seconds, recording of the heart rate, (EHR) and exertion level are undertaken. At 15 minutes recoding s of resting heart rate (RHR) is taken, while at 30 minutes, RHR, oxygen saturation, blood pressure and lung function is undertaken. Then bike exercise undertaken while the KP levels is set at 2 minutes repeat the assessment of EHR, oxygen saturation and exertion levels. At post drug level, drug is consumed and measurements taken at 15 minutes rest, record thee RHR, oxygen saturation, blood pressure and lung function test for the participant, again the assessments are undertaken at 30 minutes , rest, 45 minutes rest, 60 minutes rest, 75 minutes rest and 90 minutes rest post drug ingestion rest level . after 90 minutes start the bike then set at KP levels for 2 minutes then take the assessments of HER, oxygen saturation and exertion level. Results Pre drug treatment results Time/min Resting heart rate beats/min BP- dbp/sbp mmHg PEFR L/min ROS SpO2 % EOS EHR Beats/min Fatigue Rest Exercise 0 82 115/76 434 98 97 399 10.6 15 87 116/75 441 97 30 86 113/74 445 97 95 114 11 Average 84 117/75 440 97 97 215 11.2 Table 1 showing the pre drug assessment of the various assessment indicators. Key ; PEFR(Peak expiratory flow rate), ROS( rate of oxygen saturation ), EOS(Exercise oxygen saturation), HER- (Heart exercise rate) Post drug treatment results Time/min SBP/DBP mmHg Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 117/72 113/69 106/70 90 118/70 107/67 104/65 120 115/69 108/70 101/64 Average 116/71 109/68 103/66 Table 2 showing the blood pressure assessment Time/min RHR beats/min Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 79 79.5 71 90 79 79 72 120 82 82 71 Average 80 80 71. Table 2 : showing resting heart rate Time/min PEFRL/min Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 475 451 415 90 460 456 450 120 480 457 451 Average 471 451 438 Table 3 showing the rate of peak expiratory rate Time/min ROS SpO2% Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 97.6 98 97.08 90 97.3 98.16 97.03 120 97.5 97.3 97 Average 97.4 97.6 97 Table 4 showing rate of oxygen saturation Results after exercise Resting heart rate Time Resting heart rate beats/min Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 123 116 103 90 130 112 96.8 120 130 102 98.8 Average 127 110 99 Table 5 showing resting heart rate Exercise oxygen saturation levels Time/min EOS Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 97.6 97.33 96.5 90 98 97.5 97 120 97.3 96.8 96 Average 97.5 97 96.5 Table 6 showing exercise saturation levels Exercise fatigue levels of the assessments Time/min Fatigue Exertion level Vit B6 Atenolol Pendalol 60 10.1 12.25 11.5 90 10.9 12.5 11.8 120 11.3 13 12.9 Average 10.7 12.3 11.5 Table 7 showing exercise fatigue levels Discussion The results indicate that there is elevated blood pressure with intake of the treatment. Pre drug assessments shows an average of 117/75, while on drug administration, the blood pressure was lowered significantly to 109/68 for Atenol drug and Pendalol at 103/66 beta blockers. Blood pressure ranges 90/60 or less, signifies low blood pressure, while between ranges of 90/60 to 120/80 shows ideal pressure and 140/90 and above signifies high blood pressure. The peak expiratory flow rate indicated an average of 451 L/min for Atenolol and 438 for Pednalol. The results were comparable at the pre drug phase where there was an average of 44L/min signifying higher effect of beta blockers on lung functionality. The heart beat rate showed an average of 215 beats/min on pre drug treatment compared to 127 beats/min for the placebo, 110 beats for Atenolol drug and 99 beats/minute for pendadol drug. There was higher effect of the beta blockers on drug administration by lowering the heart beats of the sample participants. -Blockers being the common drugs for lowering blood pressure has been used in hypertension management. The results in this study have showed the effect of the -Blockers on the blood pressure. There is lowered blood pressure both systolic and diastolic signifying change effect. Its pharmacological effect acts on the intrinsic sympathomimetic activity which has adrenergic properties which block production of nitrix oxide portraying hydrophilic and lipophilic properties on blood. Combined with activity levels, it improves health outcomes through effect of cardio respiratory effects. [viii] Peak expiratory flow rate refers to the expiration speed it signifies the rate at which there is forceful exhalation of air. It reflects airway flow and this relies heavily on the voluntary effort and muscular ability of the patient. Maximum airflow is observed during effort depends on expiratory maneuver. Peak expiratory rate on medication showed an average of 97.6% under Atenol drug, 97% under pendadol drug and at 97.4% for Vitamin B 6. Compared to pre drug administration the average peak expiratory rate is 97% showing no significant difference. On exercise levels average resting heart rate for Atenolol and Pendadol is 110 betas/min and 99beats/min respectively compared to that of placebo which is 127 beats/min. on pre drug assessment the heart beat rate is 215 beats/min, signifying lowered levels of heart beat rate. Oxygen saturation rate level signifies an average of 97% on Atenolol drug, pendalol at 96.5% compared to placebo level at 97.5%. pre drug assessment showed an average of 97% showing no signifying difference. Fatigue levels on exercise showed an average of 12.3 levels on Atenolol drug and a level of 11.5 on Pendalol level compared to 10.7 levels on placebo. Pre drug assessments showed that an average of 11.2 level of fatigue showing no significant difference. In making comparisons of different intrinsic -blockers influence on cardiovascular patients, has shown that the different antagonists portray similar effect on cardiovascular activity. [ix] When used with exercise therapy, these results showed that it lowered significantly the heart beat rates. Exercise has been predominalty been used in testing the effect of treatment on cardiovascular patients. [x] Thus this experiment signifies a significant effect of e-adrenoceptor antagonists on exercise induced cardiovascular changes. Beta adrenoceptor has significant effects on the cardiovascular health status, through lowering blood pressure, reducing the levels of heart beat and improved levels of lung function. The different state of physical activity has no significant difference on the effect of beta blockers in binding the receptors of nor epinephrine and epinephrine References [i] Audigane, L., Kerfant, B. G., El Harchi, A., Lorenzen?Schmidt, I., Toumaniantz, G., Cantereau, A., ... Gauthier, C. (2009). Rabbit, a relevant model for the study of cardiac 3?adrenoceptors. Experimental physiology, 94(4), 400-411. [ii] Bozkurt, B., Bolos, M., Deswal, A., Ather, S., Chan, W., Mann, D. L., Carabello, B. (2012). New insights into mechanisms of action of carvedilol treatment in chronic heart failure patientsa matter of time for contractility. Journal of cardiac failure, 18(3), 183-193. [iii] Ferrari, R., Anand, I. S., Ceconi, C., De Giuli, F., Poole-Wilson, P. A., Harris, P. (1996). Neuroendocrine response to standing and mild exercise in patients with untreated severe congestive heart failure and chronic constrictive pericarditis. Heart, 76(1), 50-55. [iv] Peller, M., Oziera?ski, K., Balsam, P., Grabowski, M., Filipiak, K. J., Opolski, G. (2015). Influence of beta-blockers on endothelial function: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Cardiology journal, 22(6), 708-716. [v] Billeh, R., Hirsh, D., Barker, C., Jorgensen, B., Jeger, R., Ramanathan, K., ... Jorde, U. P. (2006). Randomized, Double?Blind Comparison of Acute 1?Blockade With 50 mg Metoprolol Tartrate vs 25 mg Carvedilol in Normal Subjects. Congestive Heart Failure, 12(5), 254-257 [vi] Ladage, D., Schwinger, R. H., Brixius, K. (2013). Cardio?Selective Beta?Blocker: Pharmacological Evidence and Their Influence on Exercise Capacity. Cardiovascular therapeutics, 31(2), 76-83. [vii] Marazzi, G., Volterrani, M., Caminiti, G., Iaia, L., Massaro, R., Vitale, C., ... Rosano, G. (2011). Comparative long term effects of nebivolol and carvedilol in hypertensive heart failure patients. Journal of cardiac failure, 17(9), 703-709. [viii] Moniotte, S., Balligand, J. L. (2002). Potential Use of 3?Adrenoceptor Antagonists in Heart Failure Therapy. Cardiovascular Therapeutics, 20(1), 19-26. [ix] Larochelle, P., Tobe, S. W., Lacourcire, Y. (2014). -Blockers in hypertension: studies and meta-analyses over the years. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 30(5), S16-S2 [x] Yun, S., Vincelette, N. D., Abraham, I. (2015). Cardioprotective role of -blockers and angiotensin antagonists in early-onset anthracyclines-induced cardiotoxicity in adult patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Postgraduate medical journal, 91(1081), 627-633.

The Civil Rights Era free essay sample

Martin Luther king Jr. was a black clergy man, activist, and humanitarian his great speeches helped guide people who didn’t have full equality to freedom in the United States. Martin would not have been able to give his famous speeches that helped lead the civil rights movement without the democratic left wing of the government (John F. Kennedy). There are a select few presidential administrations that deeply contributed to the civil rights era such as Abraham Lincoln, John f. Kennedy, and Richard Nixon. These three presidents and their administrations all had an impact on where America is today. The freedom that Abraham Lincoln bestowed upon African Americans by creating and enforcing the emancipation proclamation was what greased the wheels for equality for all. This also led to things such as John F. Kennedy declaring equal rights for all Americans as well as equal working opportunities for women and all ethnic groups which wouldn’t have been possible if Lincoln’s administration hadn’t made it illegal to own people for slavery. We will write a custom essay sample on The Civil Rights Era or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Another historic moment made possible by this was the financial aid which was granted by President Johnson to give to low or even no income homes. The ghettos inside of the United States could finally get the money they need. The left wing of the government also made so much possible for the civil rights conflict. JFK was forced to choose to support either the fight for freedom (which Martin Luther King jr was also a part of) or those who oppressed every one being equal (such as Wade in the court case Roe v. Wade). John chose to support Americans and their freedoms regarding abortions and Jim crow laws. The left wing was backing civil rights groups such as NOW (National Organization for Women), AIM (American Indian Movement), NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), NFWU (National Farm Workers Union), Etc. The democratic ideals really led to a breakdown of certain barriers for all sorts of men and women allowing people to be free without fear. Fear of discrimination at work, or not being allowed to work because of your gender, or how you won’t be treated fairly when you leave your home because of your color were all abolished. The three best presidential administrations the first would be the Lincoln administration, for it had brought freedom to African Americans and other slaves. Then the next administration would have to be JFKs, which had brought the civil rights act of 1964 which ended Jim Crow laws and other injustices many people faced. The third important administration that also impacted the civil rights era was Nixon’s, which ended segregation issues. Even though in 2013 segregation is no longer an issue among ethnic groups immigration reform is. Many immigrants were being deported without any criminal convictions. There are still racial injustices among all types of people, but compared to the 1960s people are a lot more humane making America feel freer than any other place.

Understanding Normal and Abnormal Behavior Essay Essays

Understanding Normal and Abnormal Behavior Essay Essays Understanding Normal and Abnormal Behavior Essay Paper Understanding Normal and Abnormal Behavior Essay Paper Abstraction The intent of this survey is to better understand the difference between normal and unnatural behaviour in society. Everyone has their ain perceptual experience of what is normal and what is unnatural and live their lives consequently. The intent here is show that there is no definite manner of life and that we each unrecorded by guidelines that are formed by society and are forced onto us. which we so force onto others. In the ceaseless pursuit for success and felicity. households are bombarded with information about how a purportedly normal household manages. Everything from raising kids to deciding struggle to how frequently people should do love seems to be compared to somebody’s thought of the norm. I besides discuss the significance of riotous behaviour in society which sets the land for separating normal and unnatural behaviour. Introduction Human behaviour is different wholly over the universe. Society is different and hence different things are expected of different people. Most people live harmonizing to what they believe is expected by their society and civilization. Peoples believe that in every civilization there is a „right? manner to populate and a „wrong? manner. There is a perceptual experience on how people should populate. work. where they should work. why they should work. what they should eat. where they should. where their childs should play. travel to school. what they should study†¦etc. It?s as if there is this „life handbook? being handed down from coevals to coevals which has ALL the replies. Apparently every civilization has one and EVERYONE knows it by bosom and expects everyone else to populate consequently. Peoples don?t acquire along. there is changeless struggle between who has to hold what and everyone believes they are right. Where do we pull the line between normal and u nnatural human behaviour? Who is right? How can we ourselves differentiate between the two so that our lives don?t start and terminal in struggle? The reply is to better understand what normalcy and abnormalcy truly is. The importance of holding replies to these inquiries lies in the fact that the wider our perceptual experience is on normalcy and abnormalcy the more tolerant we are of each others? behaviour. thoughts. and life picks. Alternatively. most civilizations have developed widely used positions on is accepted and what is non. go forthing really small for persons to make up ones mind on for themselves. Each and every event that has taken topographic point in our lives has left an imprint on our minds. We reflect on these imprints. what we know as memories. and develop our ain personal theories. When these thoughts and picks clash with those of what is accepted by society. the term â€Å"abnormal behavior† seems to demo its face. One of the first things to understand is that normal is non a equivalent word for stable. Normalcy is of all time altering. What is considered normal today will shortly be replaced by what is normal in the hereafter. Because people determine what is normal. every clip social values change their sentiment of what is normal will alter. The household has changed deeply over the past 50 old ages. What was considered normal hardly a coevals ago may be viewed as quaint or hopelessly outdated. Notice how the construction of American households has basically shifted in recent old ages: â€Å"The idealised norm of the modern atomic household has given manner to a multiplicity of household agreements. . . The 1950’s theoretical account of the White middle-class atomic household headed by a breadwinner-father and supported by a full-time homemaker-mother is presently found in merely eight per centum of U. S. families. Dual earning has become the norm for married twosomes. . . Through the influence of the women’s motion and swerve economic necessity. about 70 per centum of female parents of school-age kids. . . are in the work force. With a divorce rate at 50 per centum. over one-third of all kids will populate. at some point. in a single-parent household. Since the huge bulk of divorced persons go on to remarry. stepfamilies are expected to go the most common household signifier by the twelvemonth 2000? ( Froma Walsh. Family Business Review. Vol. VII. No. 2. summer 1994. Jossey-Bass Publishers. â€Å"Healthy Family Functioning: Conceptual and Research Developments. † p. 176 ) . Other factors. excessively. influence society’s definition of what is normal. Family structures can change greatly across racial and cultural lines every bit good as by income degrees. Given the variables. finding what is normal has become about hopelessly complicated. Adding to the confusion. readings of normality are frequently used interchangeably with footi ngs such as healthy. typical and functional. which besides have their several significances. Still another issue is the desire of some little groups. frequently stand foring merely a bantam per centum of society. to hold their â€Å"lifestyle† picks recognized and accepted as normal. This definition of what is normal has been debated and stretched so many ways it is virtually nonmeaningful. Definitions of Normal Acknowledging that readings of what is considered normal vary well in the societal scientific disciplines. Froma Walsh has identified four positions to assist people understand what other people consider to be normal. They are. she says. â€Å"normal as symptomless. normal as norm or typical. normal as ideal or optimum. and normal in relation to systemic transactional processes† ( Walsh. p. 176 ) . Recognize that each definition. while assisting specify what is normal. besides has its restrictions. The â€Å"normal as asymptomatic† position is a medical position of households who are considered normal and healthy if no wellness jobs are evident. Yet. as Dr. Walsh acknowledges. â€Å"healthy household working involves more than the absence of jobs and can be found in the thick of jobs. . . No households are free of problems† ( Walsh. p. 177 ) . â€Å"Normal as norm or typical† utilizations statistical norms to categorise households. If a household matches certain forms. it is considered normal. Often a bell-shaped curve is used to specify normal. with households in the in-between scope considered normal and those on the extremes viewed as divergences to be avoided. A failing of this concept is that optimally working families- those that exceed the in-between scope or average- are categorized as abnormal. There is a belief on how one should take part in society and those who do non desire to populate within the parturiency of cultural â€Å"rules† are shunned and in some instances looked down upon and are labeled â€Å"abnormal† . When people do non follow the norms of society they are believed to hold unnatural behaviour. Personally. I believe that the term â€Å"abnormal† is used when human behaviour and beliefs are non good understood. Society separates the people who choose to populate otherwise. But how can we judge when we are non certain of what is meant by abnormalcy. The definition of the word abnormal is simple plenty: deviating from the norm. However. using this to psychology airss a complex job: what is normal? Whose norm? For what age? For what civilization? Some would merely sort what is â€Å"good† as normal and what is â€Å"bad† as unnatural. but this is a obscure and narrow definition and brings up many of the same inquiries for the definition of â€Å"good† as does the definition for â€Å"normal† . There are many more ways of finding a more nonsubjective mention point. A really simple thought that can be used to sort unnatural behaviour is personal hurt. Basically. if a individual is content with their life. so they are of no concern to the mental wellness field. However. if a person’s ideas or behaviours are doing them personal uncomfortableness or sadness. so they will be considered unnatural. The most common standard for specifying abnormalcy. nevertheless. is maladaptiveness. There are two facets of maladaptive behaviour: 1. Maladaptive to one’s ego: Inability to make ends. to accommodate to the demands of life. 2. Maladaptive to society: Interferes. disrupts societal group operation. This type of definition allows much flexibleness. It provides room for conforming behaviour to society’s norms every bit good as aberrant behaviour every bit long as it is non self-damaging. It makes unnatural the comparative term it needs to be. dependent upon each individual’s life and fortunes. There are certain classs of behaviour that suggest the presence of psychological upsets which are. in one manner or another. maladaptive in that they threaten the wellbeing of the person. These classs include long periods of uncomfortableness. impaired operation. eccentric behaviour. and riotous behaviour. Long Time periods of Discomfort Given. everyone experiences some sort of psychological uncomfortableness during their life. This could be anything every bit simple as worrying about a calculus trial to sorrowing the decease of a loved 1. This hurt. nevertheless. is related to existent. related. or threatened events and passes off with clip. When such distressful feelings. nevertheless. persist for an drawn-out period of clip and look to be unrelated to events environing the individual. they would be considered unnatural and could propose a psychological upset. Impaired Functioning Here. once more. there must be made a differentiation between merely a ephemeral period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unaccountable. Example: a really superb individual who systematically fails categories or person who invariably changes occupations for no ground. Bizarre Behavior There are many things people do that others would happen unusual. The assorted piercings today’s younger coevals chooses to acquire and their manner of frock may look bizarre to grownups. but their motives are non difficult to understand. which keeps them from being considered clinically unnatural. Bizarre behaviour that has no rational footing. nevertheless. seems to bespeak that the person is confused. The psychoses often bring on hallucinations ( groundless centripetal perceptual experiences ) or psychotic beliefs ( beliefs which are obviously false yet held as truth by the person ) . 1 Disruptive Behavior Disruptive behaviour agencies unprompted. seemingly unmanageable behaviour that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular footing. This type of behaviour is characteristic of a terrible psychological upset. An illustration of this is the antisocial personality upset. All of these types of behaviour are maladaptive because they straight affect the well-being of the person and those around them. and barricade the growing and fulfilment of the individual’s potency. The topic of riotous behaviour is a huge subject and can non be done justness to here but I will indicate out a few of import facets that should be kept in head. Because human existences depend on the psychological well being of each person to work decently. a nonfunctional member ( what we may call unnatural ) is distinguished by his equals and more likely dramatis personae aside. Every society has its ain civilization which tends to indicate out what is accepted and what is deemed unwanted. When one or member nowadayss a separate. different behaviour or thought which is non a portion of the usual manner of life for the members. certain incongruousnesss may originate. Depending on the specific behaviour or characteristic. this may do a break in the peaceable lives of those environing this person. Such behaviour would be considered unnatural. Although we understand that what is normal for one society may be unnatural for another and frailty versa. And every society has its ain specific manner of covering with the unnatural member ; normally one is â€Å"shunned† if non labeled with a psychological upset. I. nevertheless. personally believe the more differences. positive and negative. the better the society will turn. The inquiry here is that why are working societies intolerant of differences among the members? Why should persons with different ( negative ) life picks and behaviour forms interrupt society? Decision Based on the research I have done sing this affair. non to advert the seeable result I witness every twenty-four hours. I eventually realized that we spend excessively much clip focused on what is expected of us and that puts on a batch of force per unit area. Believing that there is a certain manner to populate and staying by the regulations creates evidences for judgement. We place judgement on others who do non follow the norms of society and we label them as abnormal. Everyone has the right to populate the manner they see fit and every bit long as no 1 crosses the line and creates chaos for those around them. we can all map usually aboard each other. There is no definite manner to make up ones mind what is normal and what is unnatural ; I excessively believe it?s all about how we function in society. A well-oiled society. in which the bulk of the people act and react. consequently. will bloom whether or non people understand the constructs of normalcy and abnormalcy. However. because we are a species of group endurance. we can non undervalue the power we have on one and other. We make up society and a society that is misfunctioning due to its members holding a negative consequence on each other is a society that will discontinue to turn in a positive mode. Chaos is normally the result of an highly ailing working society. Mentions 1. Kring. Neale. Davison A ; Johnson ; Abnormal Psychology. 2007 Psychology 101: 2. Hardy. C. A ; Latane. B ; Social Loafing on a Cheering Task ; Social Science. 71. 165-172 ; ( 1986 ) . 3. Heider. F. ; The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships. New York: Wiley ; ( 1958 ) . 4. Hull. C. L. ; Principles of behaviour ; New York: Appleton ; ( 1943 ) . 5. Hull. C. L. ; A Behavior System ; New York: Appleton ; ( 1952 ) ;

Timeline of Charlemagnes Life and Reign

Timeline of Charlemagne's Life and Reign For a quick overview of the progress of Charlemagnes life, consult the chronological listing of significant events below. Timeline 742: Charles the Great is born on April 2, traditionally in this year, but possibly as late as 747751: Charlemagnes father Pippin is declared king, beginning what would later be called the Carolingian dynasty768: Upon the death of Pippin, the kingdom of Francia is divided between Charles and his brother Carloman771: Carloman dies; Charles becomes sole ruler772: Charlemagne makes his first raid on the Saxons, which is a success; but this was just the beginning of an extended struggle against the decentralized pagan tribes774: Charlemagne conquers Lombardy and becomes King of the Lombards777: Construction of a palace in Aachen begins778: An unsuccessful siege of Saragossa, Spain, is followed by an ambush of Charlemagnes retreating army by the Basques at Roncesvalles 781: Charles makes a pilgrimage to Rome and has his son Pippin proclaimed King of Italy; here he meets Alcuin, who agrees to come to Charlemagnes court782: In response to recent attacks by Saxon leader Widukind, Charlemagne reportedly has 4,500 Saxon prisoners executed en masse 787: Charles launches his educational plan by ordering bishops and abbots to open schools near their churches and monasteries788: Charlemagne takes control of Bavaria, bringing all the territory of the Germanic tribes into one political unit791-796: Charles conducts a series of campaigns against the Avars in present-day Austria and Hungary. The Avars are eventually destroyed as a cultural entity796: Construction on the cathedral in Aachen begins799: Pope Leo III is attacked in the streets of Rome and flees to Charlemagne for protection. The king has him conducted safely back to Rome800: Charlemagne comes to Rome to oversee a synod where Leo clears himself of the charges laid on him by his enemies. At Christmas mass, Leo crowns Charlemagne Emperor804: The Saxon wars finally come to an end812: Byzantine emperor Michael I acknowledges Charlemagne as emperor, though not as Roman emperor, providing official power to the power Charles already wielded in fact813: Charles delegates imperial power to Louis, his last surviving legitimate son 814: Charlemagne dies in Aachen

Female gemital circumcision or mutillation Research Paper

Female gemital circumcision or mutillation - Research Paper Example The women are still subjugated and made docile in order to be the minions of men forever. This smacks of the wider agenda on the part of men in those countries to keep silent on the practice so that their supremacy is not threatened. Female genital mutilation is (FGM) a procedure forcibly practiced on girls for non-medical reasons mainly prompted by religious beliefs. This age-old practice has been under severe criticisms for the past more than two decades. It is a deliberate assault on the female body that is physically and psychologically damaging. In the era of human rights, the practice is highly barbaric and condemnable. This paper aims to make a systematic review of literature on the subject ranging from age-old practice, human rights violations to health ramifications. The review should rest with the latest status of the practice and conclude whether it has been completely eradicated, on the decline, on the increase instead or in the same old status and to ascertain what health authorities and human rights enforcement have achieved so far in containing the practice. Various practices include Sunna, Modified Sunna, Clitoridectomy/excision and the most extreme form of infibulations. In Sunna which means tradition in Arabic, prepuce of the clitoris is prickled, slit or removed In Modified Sunna, clitoris is either partially or totally excised. In Clitoridectomy or excision, clitoris is partly or entirely removed as also all parts or part of the labia minora. The extensive scar tissue as a result occludes vaginal opening. In the most extreme form called infibulation or pharoanic circumcision, clitoris is removed and labia minora is excised along with its inner layers (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). The last of these procedures is followed by stitching of the raw edges with cat gut or even thorns to make the edges adhere together so as to form a scar issue as a bridge to cover the vaginal opening. And some stuff such as silver of wood

Critical Psychology and freedom Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Psychology and freedom - Term Paper Example Freedom means being out of external coercion from all aspects of life. In most cases this coercion comes from the government. Globalization has been brought about by individuals desire to live better and to be free. The importance of a globalized world is the mobility associated with it across the world. The key attraction to globalization is freedom as suggested by Micklethwait and Wooldridge (2000). The nature of globalization overcomes the barriers associated with where to invest, what to buy or where to go thus giving individuals the chance to make choice. This freedom associated with globalization is in terms of social, political and economic freedom. In the case of political freedom, globalization provides for the best opportunities good governance and democracies. Globalization brings economic freedom in terms of free market competition for goods and services. Social freedom means that individuals are free to move to all parts of world and interact freely without any kind of r estriction. However some scholars According to Nikolas Rose, Freedom and its value is becoming principle of most of the political endeavor and projects. The free world where the individuals dwell is triumphed with free market economy brought about by globalization according to Rudnycky (2010). The aspect of freedom according to Nikolas Rose underpins individual’s perception of how they want to be organized, ruled and understood in respect to their predicament. In the past, freedom in all spects of life was seen to eradicate social stability, order and ethics of work, civility and the value of the family. Today with the growth of globalization, freedom is valued as it brings about social mobility. Individuals have desired to be free and are always on the motive of getting liberation. However political freedom appears to be paradoxical and is almost theoretical rather than practical. According to Rose, this is because the world today is characterized by the opposition existing between freedom and government. As suggested by Baum (2000), the value of current politics has been defined by the value of liberalism. A state which is liberal is limited in that the practices of the government are restricted by individual liberty. With the issue of globalization freedom is understood as practical, material, governmental and technical. The principle of individual freedom is only moral aspect which has led to growing and advanced civilization. Protecting and enhancing citizens’ freedom secures the state’s wealth, productivity, health and its welfare. Nikolas Rose argues that freedom has been the governments’ objective. It is also perceived as governments’ instrument and means of promoting the intervention of various governing technologies. According to Zygmunt Bauman, Freedom refers to a situation whereby the motives of the individual shape their actions and the desired results of the outcome. Just like Rose, Bauman is against the idea th at freedom existing universally. Bauman argues that freedom in the modern world is constructed as a social creation and capitalism development resulting from privileges and power. In his discussion on the concept of freedom Bauman uses three different themes as suggested by Oksala (2005). One of these themes is relational concept freedom which implies that freedom to one individual is lack of freedom t anther individual. Secondly is the issue of the influence capitalism has on modern freedoms. Finally, he underscores the idea of government’

Genie the Wild Child Essay Example for Free

Genie the Wild Child Essay 1) A case study is when researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or of small groups. The EX POST FACTO method is an experimental research process, where the researcher manipulates the independent variable, while the dependable variable is controlled with the aim of establishing the effect of the independent variable on the dependable variable. There are many advantages and disadvantages to case studies. An advantage is that it can provide insight to specific cases. A disadvantage is that it may focus on isolated circumstances or events that cannot be replicated. Also a disadvantage is that people interviewed in case studies may distort their past experiences. 2) The scientists were trying to find out if people learn language from their environment or are they born with an innate ability to speak? They were also trying to find out if people can learn a language at any time in their lives or must they learn to speak when they are young? The hypothesis of their study was that she would not be able to come back to be a normal living human that is her actual age. 3) Genie spent nearly all of the first thirteen years of her life locked inside a bedroom strapped to a potty chair. She was a victim of one of the most severe cases of social isolation ever documented. Genie was discovered by Los Angeles authorities on November 4, 1970. Psychologists exhibited great interest in the case because of its perceived ability to reveal insights into the development of language and linguistic critical periods. Initially cared for in the Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Genie later became the subject of bitter debate over where and with whom she should eventually live, moving between the houses of the researchers who studied her, to foster homes, to her mothers house, and finally to a sheltered home for adults with disabilities in California. Funding and research interest in her abilities eventually ceased and she quickly regressed to her previous state. 4) I do agree with Genies treatment by all involved because in the end her treatment made it possible for many new inventions for children that might have possibilities like Genies. Her case study made many people think about how children are to be brought up correctly. If I was her teacher, I would try to help her while she is in class. I would also let someone know that I think that she could have some serious problems both mentally and at home. If I was her doctor, I would put her on medication. I would also tell authorities about what is wrong with her and how her home life could possibly be causing these problems. If I was her psychiatrist, I would let authorities know about what I think is going on at her home. If I was a social worker and I saw her, I would be really concerned and want to investigate to why she is acting the way that she was. If I was someone that wanted to adopt her, I would be ready for an experience of a life time and I would also be ready to have someone that needs lots of attention living with me. 5) Her behaviors and mental processes were unlike anyone around her age group. She was very much undeveloped. Researchers believe that this was caused from the lack of human contact. Also, because Genie was brought up in an environment that was not good, her verbal skills were very poor. At the age of 13 she only could understand about 20 words. The words that she did know were harsh and unusual for a little girl to understand. 6) The last time that Genie was found by someone was in 2000. At this time she was living in a privately owned facility for six to eight mentally undeveloped adults. I feel that today she should been someone that could show people what happens to children who are brought up in poor childhoods. 7) My connection to this specific case study is that people, who are brought up in â€Å"unhealthy† early lives, are going to have problems later on in their lives. There is not a specific case study that is similar to this one for many reasons.

For the Love of High Heels Essay -- Shoes Fashion Essays

For the Love of High Heels As I watch a fellow student teeter down the stairs in the campus center, her normally flamboyant bounce is no where to be seen as she tensely grips the guardrail. She lowers herself delicately down, each step carefully calculated. Right foot, left foot, right foot, left foot- and she makes it to the bottom without mishap. The culprits encumbering her normally wild grace are easily discerned; her shoes. Her feet are wrapped up in four inch- plus a one inch platform to make for a total of five inches- fire engine red heels. They're strappy sandals that lace half way up her calves with a silk ribbon and have effectively made walking an ordeal. Why do we do this? Well darling, because "Shoes are hot!" (Benstock & Ferriss p1) That's right, shoes are hot, and the hottest ones of all are high heels. They're collected, worn, and loved by women across the globe. They're everywhere. They run rampant in books, calendars, photographs, album and movie covers, dangling in miniature precious metal versions from earlobes and chains, and let's not forget the most important place- women's closets. Shoes are no longer something one simply wears on their feet, but a passion, a hobby, one's personal statement, a source of authority, sexual independence and joy. They're a constant obsession in pop culture, endlessly talked about and fetishized in television, movies, song lyrics, and seem to be worn without fail by glamorous celebrities no matter the occasion. The most notorious of the shoe loving pop culture media is of the smash HBO series Sex in the City, in which shoes are one it's main themes. Physically high heel shoes, and specifically the stiletto, are the source of much debate. More and more studies... ...and Benstock write that there is "...satisfaction we take in having purchased a pair of shoes that 'is us,' that represents us... The fashionable dress of the Western world is one means whereby an always fragmentary self is glued together into a semblance of unified identity. Shoes serve as markers of gender, class, race, ethnicity, and even sexuality." (p4) The idea of piecing ourselves together with our things can be applied to any accessory or article of clothing, but I argue that shoes are more than that. Power, sexuality and sheer aesthetic pleasure contribute to a love of shoes. Janet Lyon reflects upon the mystery of the love of shoes writing, "How is one to account for this hypnotic allure, for so many generations of modernity's women, of the impractical, foot-deforming, outrageous shoe?....For fabulous shoes are indeed a joy." (Benstock & Ferriss p273)

Postpartum Contraception Essay

Postpartum contraceptive methods are those used by breast feeding women before twenty six days after they have given birth. Basing on the NICE guidelines, the advice on how to use these methods should be explained to the patients before their second postpartum week. The breast feeding women are allowed to use the lactational amenorrhoea method but they are not recommended to use the COCP (combined oral contraceptive pills) method by the World Health Organization before the first 42 days postpartum because it’s illegal (outside the license) (WHO, 2006). Below are some of the postpartum contraceptive methods. The contraceptive methods; The combined contraceptive pills (to the breast feeding women) This contraceptive method to breast women brings about some hormonal out comes on the quantity of milk and its quality too. If these pills are taken before 24 weeks postpartum, they affect the baby’s growth. In a previous review of randomized controlled trials held to clarify this case, the review reassured women that hormonal contraceptive method has no strong effects on the baby’s growth. On the other hand, the World Health Organization recommended that, breast feeding mothers before 24 weeks of postpartum should not use the combined contraceptive pills because its use is outside the license (WHO, 2006). Sterilization Basing on the guideline of Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, it shows that women should be alert about the consequences and the increasing rates at which sterilization fails before the postpartum period (Johnson, Edelman and Jensen, 2003). Lactational Amenorrhoe This method is scientifically proved to be effective in preventing unwanted pregnancies, given to a woman, in less than 24 weeks postpartum. As Johnson, Edelman and Jensen (2003) states, she does not experience virginal bleeding after the first seven weeks postpartum, and if she can fully breast feed the baby day and night. Progestogen injectables If this method is used before 42 days of postpartum, it means, that it has been used illegally by the applicant (outside their license). According to Johnson, Edelman and Jensen, (2003), if injectables are used in the early periods of postpartum, it may result into excessive bleeding. It is therefore, recommended that it should be used after 42 days of breast feeding. This may prolong bleeding if applied when not breast feeding in five days of delivery. Emergency contraceptive method This method is not required before twenty one days postpartum and it can be used even if the woman is breast feeding. The IUD may be used after one month postpartum. Implants and the progestogen only pills It is recommended by World Health Organization that this method should not be applied in the first 42 days postpartum (WHO, 2006). On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, this method is commonly used by women before 42 days postpartum since it is proved that it has no effect on the quantity of breast milk and the fact that it does not affect the growth of the baby during this specified period. The following have to be noted for application of POP As noted by (Guillebaud (1993) if its application is started after the first two weeks, there is need for some additional contraception and need to clarify that the woman is not pregnant. If the woman starts to experience constant menstrual cycles again, she has to begin the applying POP including the period of five days without the necessity for additional barrier methods. For Etonogestrel implants Guillebaud (1993) explains that, this can be applied between the first 21 to 28 days of delivery. If it exceeds from 28 days, there is need to apply additional contraception methods for a week. Barrier methods (condoms, cervical caps and diaphragms); Condoms It has been proved by scientists that condoms are eighty seven percent effective when used without any other protective measure. And said to be ninety eight percent effective if used with another measure of protection (spermicide). Every time you have sex, it is recommended that you use condoms (Guillebaud, 1993). Diaphragm As Guillebaud (1993) explains, scientifically, this method is said to be ninety eight percent effective that is if used correctly. It has to fitted by the doctor and used when having sex. Conclusion From what has been discussed above, there are many postpartum contraceptive choices a breast feeding woman can use like POP, COCP, barrier methods such as condoms, cervical caps and condoms, progestogen only pills, and others. Some women are using the COCP method, for example, women in UK, before the first 42 days postpartum and yet it is not recommended by WHO. We there by strongly conclude that women should be keen when taking postpartum contraceptives for the seek of their healthy and the child they have, it is important that they should follow the recommendations of the World Health regarding postpartum contraceptives. Reference Guillebaud, J (1993): Postpartum Contraception: Unnecessary before three weeks: BMJ, Vol. 307, 6918; p 1558-61 Johnson L, Edelman A, and Jensen J (2003): Patient satisfaction and the impact of written material about postpartum contraceptive decisions: AMJ Obstet Gynecology; Vol. 188, 5, p, 1201-5 WHO (2006): Medical eligibility criteria for contraception: Available online at: www. who. int/reproductive-health/public/mec/mec. pdf

Natural Environment Essay

IB Environmental Science and Society. In this class, we focused on the ways that society affects our environment and vice versa. It opened my eyes to the fact that we can be environmentally conscious while utilizing our natural resources. I became determined to become involved with the oil and gas industry that provides so much support for Alaska’s economy, while considering the unique environment around us. I have been accepted to and intend to attend the University of Alaska Fairbanks to study Petroleum Engineering, with a minor in Environmental Politics. This particular program focuses on Alaska’s unique petroleum resources and environment. My Environmental Politics education will be a beneficial supplement and balance to my study of petroleum engineering, as I will learn the necessary precautions that must be taken when handling natural resources, and also because I will be exposed to the political issues surrounding natural resource extraction on a local and global scale. I have been accepted into the UAF Honor’s College, which I intend to become a part of, in an effort to get the most out of my education and surround myself with other students that are as focused as I am. UAF also appeals to me given the opportunities for summer internships with oil companies that operate in Alaska, many of which lead to long-term jobs after graduation. I wholeheartedly intend to stay in Alaska, but I am also interested in the international programs offered by several large oil companies as a chance to see the way other parts of the world extract and utilize their natural resources. Though it still seems far off, I am also strongly considering going for a Master’s degree at UAF in Engineering Management to be competitive and more prepared to become a leader in my field. In my career, I am most interested in increasing the efficiency of oil extraction and transportation through technology, in order to maximize the productivity and environmental safety while minimizing cost and time. Outside of my employment, I also look forward to encouraging young people, especially girls, to pursue math and science related fields, as my mother and aunt have done for me, and it has made all the difference in my decision to pursue a challenging, male-dominated field with confidence. I am confident that I will be a strong addition to the team working in Alaska to utilize our resources and improve our economy, while protecting our environment.

Brainstorming Essay Essays - Social Psychology, Collaboration

Brainstorming Essay Essays - Social Psychology, Collaboration Brainstorming Essay Traditional vs Modern societies Simranjit Kaur 214493498 The essay topic I have chosen to do is comparing and contrasting traditional and modern societies. I found this topic very interesting because I would be analyzing how society has changed over time. Society will forever be changing and its interesting to know how the first societies came to be. My argument would be that modern and traditional societies do have many differences but the most important differences are the social structure, mass consumption, and family structure. I am also more sympathetic towards modern society's, because traditional societies are very sexist and unfair by the way they treat children. Modern society lets individuals be themselves and grow as a person, where as in traditional society people were conformed and did not have much freedom. In traditional society, a person could not enjoy life instead they had duties they had to fulfill for their family's honour. Today, women have freedom and rights, they can get married to whoever, have an career, and be treated with respect. Traditional society did not value women, they were to have lots of sons and stay loyal, while their husbands could have affairs and abuse them. Another reason I prefer the modern society is because of the reason that marriages were arranged in rational society. Romantic love is common and accepted in modern society where as in traditional society it was forbidden. People did not have a choice on who they could marry, which I believe is not right. Even though these societies have their differences, there are similarities as well, for example they both have some sort of family. Traditional societies had extended family's, and today families are usually smaller but there are many households in modern society that still have extended families. In conclusion, modern society provides more opportunism for individuals.

8 ideas for experienced teachers who want a second career

8 ideas for experienced teachers who want a second career Teaching is both rewarding and difficult. There’s a lot to love about the profession, particularly having a front seat to witness students growing and learning throughout the school year. But over the long term teachers can get worn out- and are often overworked for little pay. The good news for experienced teachers is that the profession comes with a number of translatable skills. In addition to particular subject area knowledge, experienced teachers possess excellent public speaking, presentation, and leadership skills, and establish themselves as effective communicators- not just with school-aged populations, but also among parents, colleagues, and administrators. Teachers are also adept at detail-oriented work like editing, long-term planning of activities, and meeting educational goals.If you’re looking to leave the traditional classroom, the skills you’ve acquired as a teacher are can translate to many jobs in varying fields. Let’s look at a few.8 no n-classroom jobs for teachers1. Employee training/HRMany companies offer workshops, new employee training, and orientations, and need someone to run them. These employee training activities require someone with a similar skillset to teaching. Often housed in the HR Department, the presentation and transfer of knowledge in a corporate setting can offer experienced teachers a place to use their communication skills to help employees learn about their company and enrich their experiences at work.2. School administratorWhether in the area of running the day-to-day business of the school or assisting in curriculum development, teaching experience is a boon for any administrative position. From school principals to university registrars, there are a variety of positions that help keep a school running, and most positions require advanced degrees. This is a good position for teachers who are devoted to the educational system, but worn out on teaching in the classroom.3. Residential life c oordinator/Youth organization directorThe organizational skills required to plan a year of lessons and be flexible minute to minute in the classroom translate well to camps, youth organizations, and residential life departments of college campuses. Teaching experience means you will be adept at the long-term planning required in these roles, and familiarity with specific age groups in a classroom setting gives you a leg up, as you must show you can deal with large groups of people and keep them organized and engaged.4. Freelance writing and editingTeachers’ communications skills translate well to writing and editing positions, where they can use their expertise to educate outside of the classroom. Writing offers more flexibility than teaching, but less job security- especially as most writers work on a freelance basis. Editing positions, where a teacher can be called upon as a subject-matter expert to review and offer advice on their topic of knowledge, are another great free lance opportunity.5. Guidance counselorGuidance counselors must have specific knowledge about school-age populations, testing, and school district guidelines, as well as the ability to tap into a student’s motivation. Teachers already know how to do this well. In most cases, guidance counselors need to be licensed, and in some states, they need to have a master’s degree. While this job is very much adjacent to the classroom, as the primary goal is guiding students toward their educational goals, the change from classroom to office is a big one. Even so, you’re still in a school setting so that the career will feel s.6. Academic librarianExperienced teachers fit well into the role of librarian, as they have experience engaging with students while helping them in educational settings. In academic libraries, there are subject librarians with particular knowledge in certain areas (similar to teaching) that help students and faculty find resources to help with their research. Academic librarians often give presentations or build websites for university classes to help them learn how to use library tools. This role requires a graduate degree in library and information science, but for teachers looking to make a career move it can be a great option.7. Event plannerLarge-scale events, from evening receptions to corporate meetings, require a lot of planning over months and need planners with ability to think on their feet to make sure the day of the event runs smoothly. As they coordinate speakers, catering, and venue staff, event planners must be detail-oriented, effective communicators who are comfortable with large groups. While a departure from teaching, running a big event and coordinating all the details requires a similar skillset and can be a new avenue for a teacher looking to embark on a totally different career.8. Teaching outside the classroomEssentially â€Å"freelance† teaching, this option offers educators the ability to set t heir own schedules. Beyond the traditional classroom setting in schools, there are growing opportunities for online teaching or tutoring one-on-one or in small groups. Educators who don’t want to branch out on their own can also work through an agency. For teachers who have frustration with the school system but still have the teaching bug, this route can provide more freedom while still changing students’ lives.

My plan & internship 1st week report (B) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

My plan & internship 1st week report (B) - Essay Example My first week will be spent as a teller. This is a front liner job. To impress my supervisor and to do well as a teller, I will come to work early so that I have already familiarized myself with the job before the bank opens. I anticipate that there will be a system that will be used and I have to take time to learn it. Coming in early will help me learn it quickly. The rest of the three week period will be about customer service and this is where my supervisor and co-workers will be helpful. I will listen intently to what they have to teach me and observe them so that I can do customer service well. I will try to be as pleasant as possible to everybody. The internship went well but not without issues. I was however able to overcome the issues presented to me. I was nervous during the first few days because I was not familiar with bank operations. At first, I was hesitant to ask questions first because I was initially intimidated with my colleagues who seemed to be very busy all the time. I took initiative the initiative however to be confident enough to ask questions to my supervisor as well as my co-workers for me to learn about the job. It served me well during my first week as a teller because it was my adjustment period. The succeeding weeks was about customer service. During this time, I have to familiarize myself with the several systems that the bank used such as Phoenix, a system used for handling customer’s account information and lastly, QMATIC which puts order in servicing customers. These systems enable me to facilitate deposit and withdrawals, transfer money from one account to another, cash box at the end of the day as well as put order in the servicing of customers in the bank. Working in bank is not easy because it requires us to work fast without committing any errors. Thus I was told by my supervisor to learn time management to be able to service as many customers as possible

Corporate social responsibility in the global business community Assignment

Corporate social responsibility in the global business community - Assignment Example Also, it changes the business entrepreneurs perception towards business and society. Today, business is not just about profits, but it is more about profit sharing with society and employees (Kiran & Sharma, 2011). The majority of the world-renowned firms and organizations, for instance, the world bank, as well as European Commissions are mostly actively promoting and supporting the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility. However, Modern corporations attempt to put significant focus on the politics, economy, and the society of a country (Baxi, 2006). Perhaps, the developing nations are supposed to focus more on the Corporate Social Responsibility implementation and from the planning process. In addition, they can form alternatives to lifting the development of the social sector, and a suggested way is to develop viably and strategized public-private partnerships. Currently, the greatest challenge for most governments is on how to create Corporate Social Responsibility practices policies aa well as nurture a framework that is durable and would assist society and companies to translate the public policies to deliverables (Kiran & Sharma, 2011). Therefore, the paper focuses on defining CSR, identifying a global business that implements a CSR strategy, explain why, how, and where the global market they implement their strategy. The overall objective of the paper is to get a better understanding of how and why global companies are becoming more responsible. The paper also include the interpretation and conclusion. Nestle is one of the global renowned and largest, beverage and food companies. Nestle is a very old organization that started its activities almost 130 years ago. Its key success is innovations of its product. Alongside with its innovative capabilities, its brand business acquisitions that have made it be the large food firm all over the world. However, with time the passing, the Nestle company has swiftly grown and penetrated into the production of

Training and development for manager in multinational company how that Essay

Training and development for manager in multinational company how that will effact on financial dicion - Essay Example In this context, corporation invests on the training and development of workers and managers. However, when organizations undertake investments, it is with the idea that there will be a positive return of investments (Kahnemann & Riepe, 1998). As such, training is tied up with the financial and profit making-goals of the organization, thus, requiring a strong foundation for the decision to invest in the training and development programs of workers and managers. In this regard, training and development are evaluated in terms of costs and benefits that will accrue to the organization because of the investment. However, as training and development are investments of the organization necessary for its survival, the need to understand the relationship and interaction of the training programs vis-a-vis its financial repercussions for the company become essential not only for the development of training programs, but also on the financial decision-making necessary for the implementation of the training. 2. Literature Review As the need for more experienced managers in all the departments of the firm increases, significant monetary investments are incurred by the organization in terms of recruitment, selection and training (Mosier, 1986). This fact highlights two critical elements required in understanding the contemporary condition of workers and managers. First, in the real world, the truism that all systems are improvable (Drury, 2005). Second, it is the reality that things changes overtime. As such, there is a need to respond to the demands made by changes (Drury, 2005). In this view, training and development programs for managers become not only as a tool for the economic survival of the company but also a necessity in itself in order to handle the demands of the global market (Ramirez et al., 2007). 2.1 The Current Context Training and development of workers and managers contribute to the productivity and profitability of the organization (Mosier, 1986; Swanson & Sleezer, 1998). However, training programs entail costs. In this regard, there is a need to come up with a positive framework that will enable decision-makers in coming up with valid reasons for the implementation of the training programs (Heckmann, 2000). This scenario presents the fact that training programs are not arbitrarily taken by the organization, but are pursued due to the following reasons. First, managers that are more skilled are more economically efficient (Heckmann, 2000). Second, experienced managers are more motivated and engaged in creating a workplace environment that will promote learning and development for the employees (Nahrgang, Morgeson & Hofmann, 2011). This is important since through the leadership of the skilled managers; the workers align their goals and objectives with the goals and objectives of the company, thus, enabling growth for both the employees and the company (Wolfgang & Brewster, 2005). Third, training and development of managers are key fac ets of contemporary organizations (Swanson & Sleezer, 1998). Fourth, managers that are more skilled are more focused in performing their tasks and are not affected by irrelevant factors such as gender, physical appearance and age in the accomplishment of the function (Weiss & Shanteau, 2003). Finally, fifth, the productivity of more skilled workers and

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 214

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 214 Introduction High performance liquid chromatography 214 is the most widely used of all of the analytical separation techniques. The reasons for the popularity of the method is its sensitivity, ready adaptability to accurate quantitative determinations, suitability for separating non-volatile species or thermally fragile ones, wide spread applicability to substance that are of prime interest to industry, many fields of science and the public. The applications of chromatography have grown explosively in the last fifty years owing not only to the development of several new types of chromatographic techniques but also to the growing need by scientist for better methods for characterizing complex mixtures. General methodology for the development of new HPLC methods 215-228 HPLC method development follows the series of steps summarized below. Information on sample, objective of separation. Need for special HPLC procedure, sample pretreatment etc. Choice of detector and detector settings. Choosing LC method, preliminary run, estimation of best separation conditions. Optimization of separation conditions. Check for problems or requirement for special procedure. a) Recovery of purified material   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   b) Quantitative calibration  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   c) Qualitative method Validate method for routine laboratory use. A good method development strategy should require only as many experimental runs as are necessary to achieve the desired final result. Finally, method development should be simple as possible, yet it should allow the use of sophisticated tools such as computer modeling if these are available. Before the beginning of method development, it is necessary to review what is known about the sample in order to define the goals of separation. The kinds of sample related information that can be important are summarized in Table-7.1. Table-8.1 Important information concerning sample composition and properties Number   of compounds present in the sample Chemical structures of components Molecular weights of compounds PKa values of compounds UV spectra of compounds Concentration range of various compounds in samples of interest Sample solubility   Ã‚   The chemical composition of the sample can provide valuable clues for the best choice of initial conditions for an HPLC separation. Objectives of separation The objectives of HPLC separation need to be specified clearly include. The use of HPLC to isolate purified sample components for spectral identification or quantitative analysis. It may be necessary to separate all degradants or impurities from a product for reliable content assay. In quantitative analysis, the required levels of accuracy and precision should be known (a precision of  ± 1 to 2% is usually achievable). Whether a single HPLC procedure is sufficient for raw material or one or more formulations and / or different procedures are desired for the analysis of formulations? When the number of samples for analysis at one time is greater than 10, a run time of less than 20 min. will be oftenly important. Knowledge on the desired HPLC equipment, experience and academic training the operators have. Sample pretreatment and detection Samples for analysis come in various forms such as: Solutions ready for injections. Solutions that require dilution, buffering, addition of an internal standard or other volumetric manipulation. Solids that must first be dissolved or extracted. Samples that require pretreatment to remove interference and/or protect the column or equipment from damage. Most samples for HPLC analysis require weighing and / or volumetric dilution before injection. Best results are often obtained when the composition of the sample solvent is close to that of the mobile phase since this minimizes baseline upset and other problems. Some samples require a partial separation ( pretreatment) prior to HPLC, because of need to remove interference, concentrate sample analytes or eliminate â€Å"column killer†. In many cases the development of an adequate sample pretreatment can be challenging than achieving a good HPLC separation. The detector selected should sense all sample components of interest. Variable-wavelength ultraviolet (UV) detectors normally are the first choice, because of their convenience and applicability for most samples. For this reason information on the UV spectra can be an important aid for method development. When the UV response of the sample is inadequate, other detectors are available (flourescence, electrochemical, PDA etc.) or the sample can be derivatized for enhanced detection. Developing the method for the separation Selecting an HPLC method and initial conditions If HPLC is chosen for the separation, the next step is to classify the sample as regular or special. Regular samples means typical mixtures of small molecules (    Table-8.2 Handling of special sample Sample Requirements Inorganic ions Detection is primary problems; use ion chromatography Isomers Some isomers can be separated by reversed-phase HPLC and are then classified as regular samples; better separations of isomers are obtainable using either (1) normal-phase HPLC or (2) reversed-phase separations with cyclodextrin-silica columns. Enantiomers These compounds require â€Å"chiral† conditions for their separations. Biological Several factors make samples or this kind â€Å"special†; molecular conformation, polar functionality and a wide range of hydrophobicity. Macromolecules â€Å"Big† molecules require column packing with large pores  Ã‚  (>> 10-nm diameters); in addition, biological molecules require special conditions as noted above. Table-8.3 Preferred experimental conditions for the initial HPLC separation Separation variable Preferred initial choice Column Dimensions (length, ID) 15 x 0.46 cm Particle size 5 mma Stationary phase C8 or C18 Mobile phase Solvent A and B Buffer-acetonitrile % B 80-100%b Buffer (compound, pH, concentration) 25mM potassium phosphate 2.0 Additives (e.g., amine modifiers, ion pair reagents) Do not use initially Flow rate 1.5–2.0 ml/min Temperature 35-45 ºC Sample Size Volumed >25 mL Weightd B : Polar solvent  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   a 3.5 mm particles are an alternative using a 7.5 cm column b For an initial isocratic run; an initial gradient run is preferred. c No buffer required for neutral samples; for pH d Smaller values required for smaller-volume columns (e.g., 7.50.46-cm, 3.5-mm column). Table-8.4 Physical properties of silica supports for some C 18 columns Column (mL/mL) Pore diameter (nm) Surface area (m2/g) Percent Porosity Hypersil ODS 12 170 57 LiChrosorb C18 10 355 71 Novapak C18 6 N/Aa N/Aa Nucleosil C18 10 350 69` Symmetry C18 10 335 66 Zorbax ODS 6 300 55 Zorbax Rx, SB, XDB 8 180 50 a N/A : Not available On the basis of the initial exploratory run isocratic or gradient elution can be selected as most suitable. If typical reversed-phase conditions provide insufficient sample retention, suggesting the use of either ion pair on normal phase HPLC. Alternatively, the sample may be strongly retained with 100% acetonitrile as mobile phase, suggesting the use of non-aqueous reversed-phase (NARP) chromatography or normal phase HPLC. Some characteristics of reversed-phase and other HPLC methods are summarized below. Table-8.5 Characteristics of primary HPLC methods Method / description/ columns Preferred method Reversed-phase HPLC Uses water – organic mobile phase Columns: C18 (ODS), C8, phenyl, trimethylsilyl (TMS), Cyano First choice for most samples, especially neutral or non-ionisable compounds that dissolve in water-organic mixtures Ion-pair HPLC Uses water-organic mobile phase a buffer to control pH and an ion pair reagent. Column : C18, C8, cyano. Acceptable choice for ionic or ionizable compounds, especially bases or cations. Normal phase HPLC Uses mixtures of organic solvents as mobile phase Columns: Cyano, diol, amino and silica. Good second choice when reversed-phase or ion-pair HPLC is ineffective, first choice for lipophilic samples that do not dissolve well in water-organic mixtures, first choice for mixtures of isomers and for preparative-scale HPLC (silica best) Getting started on method development One approach is to use an isocratic mobile phase of some average solvent strength (e.g., 50%) organic solvent. A better alternative is to use a very strong mobile phase with (80-100% B), then reduce %B as necessary. The initial separation with 100%B results in rapid elution of the entire sample, but few groups will separate. Decreasing solvent strength shows the rapid separation of all components with a much longer run time, with a broadening of later bands and reduced detection sensitivity. Improving the separation and repeatable separation Generally the chromatographers will consider several aspects of the separation, as summarized in Table-8.6. Table-8.6 Objectives of separation in HPLC method development Objectivesa Comment Resolution Precise and rugged quantitative analysis requires that Rs be greater than 1.5. Separation time Quantitation   Ã‚ £ 2% (1 SD) for assays;  £ 5% for less-demanding analysis;  £15% for trace analysis. Pressure Peak height Narrow peaks are desirable for large signal / noise ratios Solvent consumption   Minimum mobile-phase use per run is desirable. a Roughly in order of decreasing importance but may vary with analysis requirements. Separation or resolution is a primary requirement in quantitative HPLC. The resolution (Rs) value should be maximum (Rs>1.5) favours maximum precision. Resolution usually degrades during the life of the column and can vary from day to day with minor fluctuations in separation conditions. Therefore, values of Rs = 2 or greater should be the goal during method development for simple mixtures. Such resolution will favour both improved assay precision and greater method ruggedness. Some HPLC assays do not require base line separation of the compounds of interest (qualitative analysis). In such cases only enough separation of individual components is required to provide characteristic retention times for peak identification. The time required for a separation (run time = retention time for base band) should be as short as possible and the total time spent on method development is reasonable (runtimes 5 to 10 minutes are desirable). Conditions for the final HPLC method should be selected so that the operating pressure with a new column does not exceed 170 bar (2500 psi) and upper pressure limit below 2000 psi is desirable. There are two reasons for that pressure limit, despite the fact that most HPLC equipment can be operated at much higher pressures. First, during the life of a column, the back pressure may rise by a factor of as much as 2 due to the gradual plugging of the column by particular matter. Second, at lower pressures When dealing with more challenging samples or if the goals of separation are particularly stringent, a large number of method development runs may be required to achieve acceptable separation. Repeatable separation As the experimental runs described above are being carried out, it is important to confirm that each chromatogram can be repeated. When changing conditions (mobile phase, column, and temperature) between method development experiments, enough time must elapse for the column to come into equilibrium with a new mobile phase and temperature. Usually column equilibration is achieved after passage of 10 to 20 column volumes of the new mobile phase through the column. However, this should be confirmed by carrying out a repeat experiment under the same conditions. When constant retention times are observed in two such back-to-back repeat experiments ( ± 0.5% or better), it can be assumed that the column is equilibrated and the experiments are repeatable. Completing the HPLC method development The final procedure should meet all the objectives that were defined at the beginning of method development. The method should also be robust in routine operation and usable by all laboratories and personnel for which it is intended. Quantitation and method validation One of the strengths of HPLC is that is an excellent quantitative analytical technique. HPLC can be used for the quantitation of the primary or major component of a sample (including pure samples) for mixture of many compounds at intermediate concentrations and for the assessment of trace impurity concentrations in matrix. Method validation, according to the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), is performed to ensure that an analytical methodology is accurate, specific, reproducible and rugged over the specified range that an analyte will be analysed. Method validation provides an assurance of reliability during normal use and is sometimes described as the process of providing documented evidence that the method does what it is intended to do. According to USP, the method validation involves eight steps as given below. Precision Accuracy Limit of detection Limit of quantitation Specificity Linearity and range Ruggedness Robustness Precision and accuracy: Already discussed in chapter-1. Linearity The linearity of the method is a measure of how well a calibration plot of response v/s concentration approximates a straight line, or how well the data fit to the linear equation. Y = aX + b Where ‘Y’ is the response, ‘X’ is the concentration, ‘a’ is the slope and ‘b’ is the intercept of a line fit to the data. Ideally, a linear relationship is preferred (b = 0) because it is more precise, easier for calculations and can be defined with fewer standards. Also, UV detector response for a dilute sample is expected to follow Beer’s law and be linear. Therefore, a linear calibration gives evidence that the system is performing properly throughout the concentration range of interest. Generally in HPLC, if we are using internal standard, then the linearity plot is to be drawn by taking concentration of the analyte on x-axis and the ratio of area under the curve (AUC) of analyte to AUC of internal standard (IS) on y-axis. The resulting plot slope, intercept and correlation coefficient provide the desired information on linearity. A linearity correlation coefficient above 0.999 is acceptable for most methods. Limit of detection (LOD) The limit of detection (LOD) is the smallest concentration that can be detected reliably. The LOD represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 3. Limit of quantitation (LOQ) The LOQ is the concentration that can be quantitated reliably with a specified level of accuracy and precision. The LOQ represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise ratio of 10. LOD and LOQ can be determined by using the following expressions. LOD  Ã‚  Ã‚   =  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3 X N / B LOQ  Ã‚  Ã‚   =  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10 X N / B Where N is the noise estimate, is the standard deviation of the peak area ratio of analyte to IS (5 injections) of the drugs. B is the slope of the corresponding calibration curve. The LOD and LOQ values determined during method validation are affected by the separation conditions, columns, reagents and especially instrumentation and data systems. Ruggedness Method ruggedness is defined as the reproducibility of results when the method is performed under actual use conditions. This includes different analysts, laboratories, columns, instruments, sources, chemicals, solvents etc. method ruggedness may not be known when a method is first developed, but insight is obtained during subsequent use of that method. Robustness The concept of robustness of an analytical procedure has been defined by the ICH as â€Å" a measure of its capacity to remain unaffected by small, but deliberate variations in method parameters†. The robustness of a method is the ability to remain unaffected by small changes in parameters such as pH of the mobile phase, temperature, percentage of organic solvent and buffer concentration etc. to determine robustness of the method experimental conditions were purposely altered and chromatographic characteristics were evaluated. To study the pH effect on the retention (K1) of the drug, buffer pH is to be changed by 0.2 units. At certain point, retention will increase at any pH above and below of the pH unit. The effect of temperature on the retention characteristics (K1) of the drug is to be studied by changing the temperature in steps 2 ºC from room temperature to 80 ºC and see the effect of temperature on the resolution and peak shape. Effect of percentage organic strength on retention is to be studied by varying the percentage of organic solvents like acetonitrile, methanol etc. from 0 to 2% while the other mobile phase contents are held constant and observe the K1. At certain point decreases in K1 observed with increase in the level of organic solvent. Effect of buffer concentration should be checked at three concentration levels i.e. 0.025 M, 0.05 M and 0.1 M and observe retention time and resolution. Stability To generate reproducible and reliable results, the samples, standards and reagents used for the HPLC method must be stable for a reasonable time (e.g., One day, one week, one month, depending on the need). For example, the analysis of even a single sample may require 10 or more chromatographic runs to determine system suitability, including standard concentrations to create a working analytical curve and duplicate or triplicate injections of the sample to be assayed. Therefore, a few hours of standard and sample solution stability can be required even for a short (10 min.) separation. When more than one sample is analyzed, automated, over night runs often are performed for better laboratory efficiency. Typically, 24 hours stability is desired for all solutions and reagents that need to be prepared for each analysis. Mobile phases should be chosen to avoid stability problems, especially the use of amine additives or specific solvents. For example, mobile phase containing THF (tetra hydrofuran) are known to be susceptible to oxidation, therefore, the mobile phase should be prepared daily with fresh THF. Some buffered mobile phases cause problems for example, phosphate and acetate provide good media for microbial growth. Sodium oxide (0.1%) is often added to the mobile phase buffer to inhibit such growth, adding more than 5% of organic solvent is also effective. Long term column stability is critical for method ruggedness. Even the best HPLC column will eventually degrade and lose its initial performance, often as a function of the number of samples injected. System suitability System suitability experiments can be defined as tests to ensure that the method can generate results of acceptable accuracy and precision. The requirements for system suitability are usually developed after method development and validation have been completed. The criteria selected will be based on the actual performance of the method as determined during its validation. For example, if sample retention times forms part of the system suitability criteria, their variation (SD) during validation can be determined, system suitability might then require that retention times fall within a  ±3 SD range during routine performance of the method. The USP (2000) defines parameters that can be used to determine system suitability prior to analysis. These parameters include plate number (N), tailing factor, k and / or a, resolution (Rs) and relative standard deviation (RSD) of peak height or peak area for respective injections. The RSD of peak height or area of five injections of standard solution is normally accepted as one of the standard criteria. For an assay method of a major component, the RSD should typically be less than 1% for these five respective injections. The plate number and / or tailing factor are used if the run contains only one peak. For chromatographic separations with more than one peak, such as an internal standard assay or an impurity method, expected to contain many peaks, some measure of separations such as Rs is recommended. Reproducibility of tR or k value for a specific compound also defines system performance. The column performance can be defined in terms of column plate number ‘N’ is defined by N = 5.54 (tR / W ½)2 Where ‘tR’ is the retention time of the peak and ‘W ½Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ is the width of the peak at half peak height. The resolution of two adjacent peaks can be calculated by using the formula Rs = 1.18 (t2-t1) / W0.5.1 +W0.5.2 Where ‘t1’ and ‘t2’ are retention times of the adjacent peaks and W0.5.1 and W0.5.2 are the width of the peaks at half height. Rs = 2.0 or greater is a desirable target for method development. The retention factor k is given by the equation. k = (tR – t0) / t0 where ‘tR’ is the band retention time and t0 is the column dead time. The peak symmetry can be represented in terms of peak asymmetry factor and peak tailing factor, which can be calculated by using the following formula. Peak asymmetry factor = B /A Where ‘B’ is the distance at 50% peak height between leading edge to the perpendicular drawn from the peak maxima and ‘A’ is the width of the peak at half height. According to USP (2000) peak tailing factor can be calculated by using the formula T = W0.05 / 2f Where â€Å"W0.05† is the width of the peak at 5% height and â€Å"f† is the distance from the peak maximum to the leading edge of the peak, the distance being measured at a point 50% of the peak height from the base line. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 214 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 214 Introduction High performance liquid chromatography 214 is the most widely used of all of the analytical separation techniques. The reasons for the popularity of the method is its sensitivity, ready adaptability to accurate quantitative determinations, suitability for separating non-volatile species or thermally fragile ones, wide spread applicability to substance that are of prime interest to industry, many fields of science and the public. The applications of chromatography have grown explosively in the last fifty years owing not only to the development of several new types of chromatographic techniques but also to the growing need by scientist for better methods for characterizing complex mixtures. General methodology for the development of new HPLC methods 215-228 HPLC method development follows the series of steps summarized below. Information on sample, objective of separation. Need for special HPLC procedure, sample pretreatment etc. Choice of detector and detector settings. Choosing LC method, preliminary run, estimation of best separation conditions. Optimization of separation conditions. Check for problems or requirement for special procedure. a) Recovery of purified material   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   b) Quantitative calibration  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   c) Qualitative method Validate method for routine laboratory use. A good method development strategy should require only as many experimental runs as are necessary to achieve the desired final result. Finally, method development should be simple as possible, yet it should allow the use of sophisticated tools such as computer modeling if these are available. Before the beginning of method development, it is necessary to review what is known about the sample in order to define the goals of separation. The kinds of sample related information that can be important are summarized in Table-7.1. Table-8.1 Important information concerning sample composition and properties Number   of compounds present in the sample Chemical structures of components Molecular weights of compounds PKa values of compounds UV spectra of compounds Concentration range of various compounds in samples of interest Sample solubility   Ã‚   The chemical composition of the sample can provide valuable clues for the best choice of initial conditions for an HPLC separation. Objectives of separation The objectives of HPLC separation need to be specified clearly include. The use of HPLC to isolate purified sample components for spectral identification or quantitative analysis. It may be necessary to separate all degradants or impurities from a product for reliable content assay. In quantitative analysis, the required levels of accuracy and precision should be known (a precision of  ± 1 to 2% is usually achievable). Whether a single HPLC procedure is sufficient for raw material or one or more formulations and / or different procedures are desired for the analysis of formulations? When the number of samples for analysis at one time is greater than 10, a run time of less than 20 min. will be oftenly important. Knowledge on the desired HPLC equipment, experience and academic training the operators have. Sample pretreatment and detection Samples for analysis come in various forms such as: Solutions ready for injections. Solutions that require dilution, buffering, addition of an internal standard or other volumetric manipulation. Solids that must first be dissolved or extracted. Samples that require pretreatment to remove interference and/or protect the column or equipment from damage. Most samples for HPLC analysis require weighing and / or volumetric dilution before injection. Best results are often obtained when the composition of the sample solvent is close to that of the mobile phase since this minimizes baseline upset and other problems. Some samples require a partial separation ( pretreatment) prior to HPLC, because of need to remove interference, concentrate sample analytes or eliminate â€Å"column killer†. In many cases the development of an adequate sample pretreatment can be challenging than achieving a good HPLC separation. The detector selected should sense all sample components of interest. Variable-wavelength ultraviolet (UV) detectors normally are the first choice, because of their convenience and applicability for most samples. For this reason information on the UV spectra can be an important aid for method development. When the UV response of the sample is inadequate, other detectors are available (flourescence, electrochemical, PDA etc.) or the sample can be derivatized for enhanced detection. Developing the method for the separation Selecting an HPLC method and initial conditions If HPLC is chosen for the separation, the next step is to classify the sample as regular or special. Regular samples means typical mixtures of small molecules (    Table-8.2 Handling of special sample Sample Requirements Inorganic ions Detection is primary problems; use ion chromatography Isomers Some isomers can be separated by reversed-phase HPLC and are then classified as regular samples; better separations of isomers are obtainable using either (1) normal-phase HPLC or (2) reversed-phase separations with cyclodextrin-silica columns. Enantiomers These compounds require â€Å"chiral† conditions for their separations. Biological Several factors make samples or this kind â€Å"special†; molecular conformation, polar functionality and a wide range of hydrophobicity. Macromolecules â€Å"Big† molecules require column packing with large pores  Ã‚  (>> 10-nm diameters); in addition, biological molecules require special conditions as noted above. Table-8.3 Preferred experimental conditions for the initial HPLC separation Separation variable Preferred initial choice Column Dimensions (length, ID) 15 x 0.46 cm Particle size 5 mma Stationary phase C8 or C18 Mobile phase Solvent A and B Buffer-acetonitrile % B 80-100%b Buffer (compound, pH, concentration) 25mM potassium phosphate 2.0 Additives (e.g., amine modifiers, ion pair reagents) Do not use initially Flow rate 1.5–2.0 ml/min Temperature 35-45 ºC Sample Size Volumed >25 mL Weightd B : Polar solvent  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   a 3.5 mm particles are an alternative using a 7.5 cm column b For an initial isocratic run; an initial gradient run is preferred. c No buffer required for neutral samples; for pH d Smaller values required for smaller-volume columns (e.g., 7.50.46-cm, 3.5-mm column). Table-8.4 Physical properties of silica supports for some C 18 columns Column (mL/mL) Pore diameter (nm) Surface area (m2/g) Percent Porosity Hypersil ODS 12 170 57 LiChrosorb C18 10 355 71 Novapak C18 6 N/Aa N/Aa Nucleosil C18 10 350 69` Symmetry C18 10 335 66 Zorbax ODS 6 300 55 Zorbax Rx, SB, XDB 8 180 50 a N/A : Not available On the basis of the initial exploratory run isocratic or gradient elution can be selected as most suitable. If typical reversed-phase conditions provide insufficient sample retention, suggesting the use of either ion pair on normal phase HPLC. Alternatively, the sample may be strongly retained with 100% acetonitrile as mobile phase, suggesting the use of non-aqueous reversed-phase (NARP) chromatography or normal phase HPLC. Some characteristics of reversed-phase and other HPLC methods are summarized below. Table-8.5 Characteristics of primary HPLC methods Method / description/ columns Preferred method Reversed-phase HPLC Uses water – organic mobile phase Columns: C18 (ODS), C8, phenyl, trimethylsilyl (TMS), Cyano First choice for most samples, especially neutral or non-ionisable compounds that dissolve in water-organic mixtures Ion-pair HPLC Uses water-organic mobile phase a buffer to control pH and an ion pair reagent. Column : C18, C8, cyano. Acceptable choice for ionic or ionizable compounds, especially bases or cations. Normal phase HPLC Uses mixtures of organic solvents as mobile phase Columns: Cyano, diol, amino and silica. Good second choice when reversed-phase or ion-pair HPLC is ineffective, first choice for lipophilic samples that do not dissolve well in water-organic mixtures, first choice for mixtures of isomers and for preparative-scale HPLC (silica best) Getting started on method development One approach is to use an isocratic mobile phase of some average solvent strength (e.g., 50%) organic solvent. A better alternative is to use a very strong mobile phase with (80-100% B), then reduce %B as necessary. The initial separation with 100%B results in rapid elution of the entire sample, but few groups will separate. Decreasing solvent strength shows the rapid separation of all components with a much longer run time, with a broadening of later bands and reduced detection sensitivity. Improving the separation and repeatable separation Generally the chromatographers will consider several aspects of the separation, as summarized in Table-8.6. Table-8.6 Objectives of separation in HPLC method development Objectivesa Comment Resolution Precise and rugged quantitative analysis requires that Rs be greater than 1.5. Separation time Quantitation   Ã‚ £ 2% (1 SD) for assays;  £ 5% for less-demanding analysis;  £15% for trace analysis. Pressure Peak height Narrow peaks are desirable for large signal / noise ratios Solvent consumption   Minimum mobile-phase use per run is desirable. a Roughly in order of decreasing importance but may vary with analysis requirements. Separation or resolution is a primary requirement in quantitative HPLC. The resolution (Rs) value should be maximum (Rs>1.5) favours maximum precision. Resolution usually degrades during the life of the column and can vary from day to day with minor fluctuations in separation conditions. Therefore, values of Rs = 2 or greater should be the goal during method development for simple mixtures. Such resolution will favour both improved assay precision and greater method ruggedness. Some HPLC assays do not require base line separation of the compounds of interest (qualitative analysis). In such cases only enough separation of individual components is required to provide characteristic retention times for peak identification. The time required for a separation (run time = retention time for base band) should be as short as possible and the total time spent on method development is reasonable (runtimes 5 to 10 minutes are desirable). Conditions for the final HPLC method should be selected so that the operating pressure with a new column does not exceed 170 bar (2500 psi) and upper pressure limit below 2000 psi is desirable. There are two reasons for that pressure limit, despite the fact that most HPLC equipment can be operated at much higher pressures. First, during the life of a column, the back pressure may rise by a factor of as much as 2 due to the gradual plugging of the column by particular matter. Second, at lower pressures When dealing with more challenging samples or if the goals of separation are particularly stringent, a large number of method development runs may be required to achieve acceptable separation. Repeatable separation As the experimental runs described above are being carried out, it is important to confirm that each chromatogram can be repeated. When changing conditions (mobile phase, column, and temperature) between method development experiments, enough time must elapse for the column to come into equilibrium with a new mobile phase and temperature. Usually column equilibration is achieved after passage of 10 to 20 column volumes of the new mobile phase through the column. However, this should be confirmed by carrying out a repeat experiment under the same conditions. When constant retention times are observed in two such back-to-back repeat experiments ( ± 0.5% or better), it can be assumed that the column is equilibrated and the experiments are repeatable. Completing the HPLC method development The final procedure should meet all the objectives that were defined at the beginning of method development. The method should also be robust in routine operation and usable by all laboratories and personnel for which it is intended. Quantitation and method validation One of the strengths of HPLC is that is an excellent quantitative analytical technique. HPLC can be used for the quantitation of the primary or major component of a sample (including pure samples) for mixture of many compounds at intermediate concentrations and for the assessment of trace impurity concentrations in matrix. Method validation, according to the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), is performed to ensure that an analytical methodology is accurate, specific, reproducible and rugged over the specified range that an analyte will be analysed. Method validation provides an assurance of reliability during normal use and is sometimes described as the process of providing documented evidence that the method does what it is intended to do. According to USP, the method validation involves eight steps as given below. Precision Accuracy Limit of detection Limit of quantitation Specificity Linearity and range Ruggedness Robustness Precision and accuracy: Already discussed in chapter-1. Linearity The linearity of the method is a measure of how well a calibration plot of response v/s concentration approximates a straight line, or how well the data fit to the linear equation. Y = aX + b Where ‘Y’ is the response, ‘X’ is the concentration, ‘a’ is the slope and ‘b’ is the intercept of a line fit to the data. Ideally, a linear relationship is preferred (b = 0) because it is more precise, easier for calculations and can be defined with fewer standards. Also, UV detector response for a dilute sample is expected to follow Beer’s law and be linear. Therefore, a linear calibration gives evidence that the system is performing properly throughout the concentration range of interest. Generally in HPLC, if we are using internal standard, then the linearity plot is to be drawn by taking concentration of the analyte on x-axis and the ratio of area under the curve (AUC) of analyte to AUC of internal standard (IS) on y-axis. The resulting plot slope, intercept and correlation coefficient provide the desired information on linearity. A linearity correlation coefficient above 0.999 is acceptable for most methods. Limit of detection (LOD) The limit of detection (LOD) is the smallest concentration that can be detected reliably. The LOD represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of 3. Limit of quantitation (LOQ) The LOQ is the concentration that can be quantitated reliably with a specified level of accuracy and precision. The LOQ represents the concentration of analyte that would yield a signal-to-noise ratio of 10. LOD and LOQ can be determined by using the following expressions. LOD  Ã‚  Ã‚   =  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3 X N / B LOQ  Ã‚  Ã‚   =  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   10 X N / B Where N is the noise estimate, is the standard deviation of the peak area ratio of analyte to IS (5 injections) of the drugs. B is the slope of the corresponding calibration curve. The LOD and LOQ values determined during method validation are affected by the separation conditions, columns, reagents and especially instrumentation and data systems. Ruggedness Method ruggedness is defined as the reproducibility of results when the method is performed under actual use conditions. This includes different analysts, laboratories, columns, instruments, sources, chemicals, solvents etc. method ruggedness may not be known when a method is first developed, but insight is obtained during subsequent use of that method. Robustness The concept of robustness of an analytical procedure has been defined by the ICH as â€Å" a measure of its capacity to remain unaffected by small, but deliberate variations in method parameters†. The robustness of a method is the ability to remain unaffected by small changes in parameters such as pH of the mobile phase, temperature, percentage of organic solvent and buffer concentration etc. to determine robustness of the method experimental conditions were purposely altered and chromatographic characteristics were evaluated. To study the pH effect on the retention (K1) of the drug, buffer pH is to be changed by 0.2 units. At certain point, retention will increase at any pH above and below of the pH unit. The effect of temperature on the retention characteristics (K1) of the drug is to be studied by changing the temperature in steps 2 ºC from room temperature to 80 ºC and see the effect of temperature on the resolution and peak shape. Effect of percentage organic strength on retention is to be studied by varying the percentage of organic solvents like acetonitrile, methanol etc. from 0 to 2% while the other mobile phase contents are held constant and observe the K1. At certain point decreases in K1 observed with increase in the level of organic solvent. Effect of buffer concentration should be checked at three concentration levels i.e. 0.025 M, 0.05 M and 0.1 M and observe retention time and resolution. Stability To generate reproducible and reliable results, the samples, standards and reagents used for the HPLC method must be stable for a reasonable time (e.g., One day, one week, one month, depending on the need). For example, the analysis of even a single sample may require 10 or more chromatographic runs to determine system suitability, including standard concentrations to create a working analytical curve and duplicate or triplicate injections of the sample to be assayed. Therefore, a few hours of standard and sample solution stability can be required even for a short (10 min.) separation. When more than one sample is analyzed, automated, over night runs often are performed for better laboratory efficiency. Typically, 24 hours stability is desired for all solutions and reagents that need to be prepared for each analysis. Mobile phases should be chosen to avoid stability problems, especially the use of amine additives or specific solvents. For example, mobile phase containing THF (tetra hydrofuran) are known to be susceptible to oxidation, therefore, the mobile phase should be prepared daily with fresh THF. Some buffered mobile phases cause problems for example, phosphate and acetate provide good media for microbial growth. Sodium oxide (0.1%) is often added to the mobile phase buffer to inhibit such growth, adding more than 5% of organic solvent is also effective. Long term column stability is critical for method ruggedness. Even the best HPLC column will eventually degrade and lose its initial performance, often as a function of the number of samples injected. System suitability System suitability experiments can be defined as tests to ensure that the method can generate results of acceptable accuracy and precision. The requirements for system suitability are usually developed after method development and validation have been completed. The criteria selected will be based on the actual performance of the method as determined during its validation. For example, if sample retention times forms part of the system suitability criteria, their variation (SD) during validation can be determined, system suitability might then require that retention times fall within a  ±3 SD range during routine performance of the method. The USP (2000) defines parameters that can be used to determine system suitability prior to analysis. These parameters include plate number (N), tailing factor, k and / or a, resolution (Rs) and relative standard deviation (RSD) of peak height or peak area for respective injections. The RSD of peak height or area of five injections of standard solution is normally accepted as one of the standard criteria. For an assay method of a major component, the RSD should typically be less than 1% for these five respective injections. The plate number and / or tailing factor are used if the run contains only one peak. For chromatographic separations with more than one peak, such as an internal standard assay or an impurity method, expected to contain many peaks, some measure of separations such as Rs is recommended. Reproducibility of tR or k value for a specific compound also defines system performance. The column performance can be defined in terms of column plate number ‘N’ is defined by N = 5.54 (tR / W ½)2 Where ‘tR’ is the retention time of the peak and ‘W ½Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ is the width of the peak at half peak height. The resolution of two adjacent peaks can be calculated by using the formula Rs = 1.18 (t2-t1) / W0.5.1 +W0.5.2 Where ‘t1’ and ‘t2’ are retention times of the adjacent peaks and W0.5.1 and W0.5.2 are the width of the peaks at half height. Rs = 2.0 or greater is a desirable target for method development. The retention factor k is given by the equation. k = (tR – t0) / t0 where ‘tR’ is the band retention time and t0 is the column dead time. The peak symmetry can be represented in terms of peak asymmetry factor and peak tailing factor, which can be calculated by using the following formula. Peak asymmetry factor = B /A Where ‘B’ is the distance at 50% peak height between leading edge to the perpendicular drawn from the peak maxima and ‘A’ is the width of the peak at half height. According to USP (2000) peak tailing factor can be calculated by using the formula T = W0.05 / 2f Where â€Å"W0.05† is the width of the peak at 5% height and â€Å"f† is the distance from the peak maximum to the leading edge of the peak, the distance being measured at a point 50% of the peak height from the base line.